“A part of what has characterized life in European cities has taken place in their open public spaces. The public space has not been the negative space of homes but the positive space of the city. Public space has emerged, it has been created to be the place of assembly, the market, the celebration, justice, theater, work, play, encounter, conversation, religion, carnival, music…” – Jan Gehl

Public space, as noted by Jan Gehl, has been the backdrop of a rich and diverse urban life over the centuries. It has been a place where the community gathers, celebrates, and becomes part of the city’s history. In this ode to public space, we will explore the importance of using this space for celebrations and festivals, with a particular focus on how these events shape public space and transform it into a living platform for culture, diversity, and collective identity.

Public space is more than urban infrastructure; it is a place where life takes shape and experiences are shared. Festivals in public space enrich the city and breathe life into the collective imagination. These celebrations not only configure the physical space but also endow it with new meaning, utilizing the opportunities it provides.

Events held in public space become true manifestations of gathering and community. People from all corners of the city converge there, turning strangers into friends in this festive and celebratory atmosphere. This meeting promotes community cohesion and fosters social interaction, as participants share a sense of unity and belonging to a common space. Festivals in public space are not isolated events but become points of encounter and connection between neighbors and visitors, weaving a community network that unites people from different backgrounds.

Furthermore, these events also serve as vehicles for culture and tradition. Many festivals celebrated in public space are inherently linked to local culture and traditions. From musical performances to traditional attire and specific rituals, these celebrations help preserve and transmit the rich cultural heritage of the community. Through music, dance, performances, and other cultural elements, the identity and roots of the community are highlighted, allowing these traditions to continue to thrive through the generations.

Diversity and inclusion are also fundamental values that are evident in public space celebrations. These celebrations offer an opportunity for people of all kinds, regardless of their ethnic background, religion, social class, or other characteristics, to celebrate together. Public space becomes a place where differences fade away, and people come together to enjoy a prejudice-free and barrier-free celebration environment. This dimension of inclusion and diversity promotes a deeper and more respectful understanding of different cultures and encourages peaceful coexistence and the acceptance of diversity within society.

 

Examples of Public Space Festivities

Carnival in Brazil

Public space becomes crucial for the Carnival celebrations in Brazil, as it is the main stage where this celebration comes to life and significance. Carnival is a rich cultural manifestation deeply rooted in the country’s history, with its origins in the colonial era and the interaction between indigenous, African, and European cultures. In this sense, public space becomes the area of maximum expression of this cultural and religious diversity.

Author Emanuelle Kierulff explores how different samba schools occupy and define public spaces through their parades and celebrations, thus shaping the urban and territorial space of different neighborhoods. The samba school parades become true public spectacles that use the main streets of the cities, emphasizing and reclaiming these spaces as venues for cultural expression. Furthermore, Carnival street parties are the setting where the city’s inhabitants can participate in and experience this cultural expression as direct actors.

In this sense, public space is not merely a backdrop for Carnival celebrations; it becomes an active protagonist that shapes the cultural identity of local communities. This transformation of public space into a place of celebration, encounter, and cultural expression is essential for the continuity and evolution of this important Brazilian festival, highlighting the importance of public space as a stage and cultural mediator in celebrations worldwide.

Las Fallas in Valencia

Las Fallas in Valencia is an iconic and emblematic celebration that highlights the importance of public space in the city’s life and culture. This festival, with its ephemeral artistic monuments and fireworks shows, unfolds in every corner of Valencia, turning public space into a collective stage where cultural and social communion takes place. The streets, squares, and small plazas become meeting places where Valencians and visitors come together to enjoy this unique celebration.

The Fallas festival, with its deep roots and strong connections to Valencia’s history, serves as a paradigmatic example of how public space becomes a stage for cultural and social expression. This is where art, tradition, and creativity are manifested, as local and foreign artists work to build the magnificent monuments that will be burned in a spectacular fire ceremony after a few days. Public space in Valencia comes to life with cultural events during this festival, and Las Fallas would not be what they are without their intrinsic relationship with the city’s streets and squares.

Patum in Berga, Catalonia

Public space plays a fundamental role in the celebration of the Patum de Berga, a traditional and ancient festival declared Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. The Plaza de San Pedro and other streets and squares in Berga become the main stage where this festival comes to life. As mentioned by Richard Sennett, public space is the stage for the festival, the place where the community gathers to celebrate its cultural roots. The layout and configuration of Berga’s public space allow the different “collas” or groups participating in the Patum to perform their traditional acts and dances with precision and spectacle. Public space becomes the soul of the festival, where social interaction and connection with local culture are possible. This celebration is a vivid example of how public space can be a platform for the preservation and transmission of cultural traditions, connecting people with their history and the roots of their past.

Holi, India

Public space in India plays a crucial role in the celebration of Holi, the festival of colors that is one of the country’s most iconic celebrations. Holi is a commemoration of spring and the victory of good over evil. The streets and squares of cities and towns become the main stage for this festival, where people gather to throw vibrant colored powders, dance, sing, and share joy.

Public space becomes a meeting place and a focal point for the community during Holi, where social and economic differences disappear, and people of all backgrounds can participate in the celebration. This festive event promotes community cohesion and offers the opportunity to promote India’s own culture and traditions, contributing to their continuity and enrichment.

The use of public space during Holi reflects the deep-rooted nature of this festival in the everyday lives of people in India. Additionally, public space becomes a witness to the diversity and inclusion that characterize this celebration, as people from different backgrounds come together to enjoy a festival that celebrates life, fertility, and unity. It is in India’s public space that Holi comes to full fruition and becomes a living manifestation of the country’s culture and identity.

Qualities of Public Space

Therefore, a good public space for hosting festivities or celebrations worldwide must meet several important requirements. The key elements necessary include:

• Spaciousness and Accessibility: The space must be large enough to accommodate festivities and should be accessible to people with reduced mobility, with clear access and exit routes for emergencies.
• Platforms or Stages: Temporary platforms or stages are often needed for participants to carry out their performances.
• Adequate Lighting: If the event takes place at night, it is essential that the space has proper lighting to ensure safety and visibility.
• Information and Assistance Points: Establish information and assistance points with qualified personnel focused on addressing emergency situations or assisting individuals who may feel insecure. These points can provide information on how to navigate the event safely and serve as locations to collect incident reports.
• Spectator Areas: The public space must have designated areas where spectators can safely watch the performances without interfering with the participants.
• Basic Services: Facilities such as public restrooms, water points, and emergency services (such as medical personnel and security personnel) should be available to all participants.
• Safe Design: The space should be designed to ensure the safety of participants and spectators. This may include safety barriers, signage, and controlled access.
• Cleaning and Waste Collection: Authorities should coordinate cleaning and waste collection services to ensure that the public space remains clean and safe during and after the event.
• Public Transportation Accessibility: A good public space should be easily accessible via public transportation to facilitate the participation of people from outside the area.

Public space festivities are living witnesses to culture, tradition, and diversity. These events not only configure the physical space but also transform it into a platform for community cohesion and inclusion. Celebrations such as the Rio Carnival, the Fallas of Valencia, the Patum of Berga, and Holi in India demonstrate how public space can be a place of gathering and celebration where diversity is celebrated. These festivals make public space come alive, changing and becoming essential for city life, and reminding everyone that the streets are not just for traffic but for community and culture.

 

* References 

• Ferri, L. (2007). Las Fallas de Valencia. Un análisis desde la perspectiva urbana. Cuadernos de estudios urbanos y regionales, 8(19), 97-118.

• Porcar, A. M. (2014). Las Fallas de Valencia y el patrimonio cultural. Apuntes desde la antropología urbana. Revista d’etnologia de Catalunya, (39), 26-35.

• Richard Sennett, “The Uses of Disorder: Personal Identity and City Life.”
• Patum de Berga, “Declaració de la Patum com a Patrimoni Cultural Immaterial de la Humanitat per la UNESCO.”

In a world marked by constant change, where the lines between migration and rootedness blur, and where the intersection of identities weaves a complex tapestry, we find ourselves in a time of both harmonization and dissonance. We are, as Amin Maalouf suggests, all in a sense migrants, navigating a universe that bears little resemblance to the place of our birth. Our identities, once solid and unchanging, are now fluid and evolving throughout our lifetimes.

As Wilhelm Reich profoundly stated, “You think the end justifies the means, however vile. I tell you: the end is the means by which you achieve it. Today’s step is tomorrow’s life. Great ends cannot be attained by base means. You’ve proved that in all your social upheavals. The meanness and inhumanity of the means make you mean and inhuman and make the end unattainable.” Reich’s words emphasize the profound link between the means and the ends in the journey of identity. It’s a reminder that the path we choose matters as much as the destination.

The concept of identity, deeply intertwined with the idea of migration, is in a state of constant flux. We are shaped not only by our roots but by the environments we find ourselves in. Identity is a construct that continually adapts as we encounter new cultures, languages, and ideas. As Maalouf points out, being a migrant is not limited to those who have been forced to leave their native lands; it now encompasses a broader definition. We all must learn new languages, adapt to different modes of speech, and internalize codes that are alien to our original identities.

This process of evolving identity often leaves us feeling torn, caught between the land we left and the land we’ve embraced. Embracing a new culture is not an act of betrayal, but a complex negotiation that involves navigating a range of emotions. The new culture may be one of rejection, a response to repression, insecurity, or lack of opportunity. Yet, the act of leaving behind a part of one’s identity, even when it is rooted in challenging circumstances, carries a sense of guilt and sadness.

However, the essence of a harmonious society lies in the acceptance of all identities. As Maya Angelou eloquently puts it, “We all should know that diversity makes for a rich tapestry, and we must understand that all the threads of the tapestry are equal in value no matter what their color.” Diversity is not just a matter of ethnicity or race but also encompasses gender, religion, language, sexual orientation, and more.

Public spaces, those shared realms where communities intersect and coexist, play a pivotal role in fostering diversity and promoting antiracism. These spaces serve as the common ground where individuals of various backgrounds, cultures, and identities come together. In public spaces, the lines that separate us based on ethnicity, race, or other characteristics begin to blur, as the shared experience of coexisting takes precedence.

Jane Jacobs, in her timeless work “The Death and Life of Great American Cities,” emphasizes the significance of well-designed urban areas. Cities have the potential to provide something for everybody, but only when they are created collaboratively. A harmonious city is characterized by clear boundaries between public and private spaces, with buildings oriented toward streets and sidewalks continuously bustling with activity. This inclusivity is the key to making cities vibrant and livable.

Public spaces, whether bustling city squares, serene parks, or vibrant neighborhoods, offer an opportunity for individuals to engage with one another. This engagement, often spontaneous and unscripted, allows people to witness the surrounding diversity, breaking down stereotypes and prejudices. The mere act of sharing a public space fosters a sense of interconnectedness, promoting empathy, understanding, and appreciation of different cultures and identities.

Moreover, these spaces provide a platform for the expression of diverse identities. Cultural events, festivals, and gatherings in public spaces celebrate a rich tapestry of traditions, languages, and customs. They become a testament to the beauty of diversity, showcasing the value of different perspectives and experiences.

In our quest to honor diversity and promote antiracism, public spaces offer a critical arena for change. Angela Y. Davis reminds us that in a racist society, it’s not enough to be non-racist; we must actively be anti-racist. This means challenging systemic prejudices and working towards a more inclusive society. In this process, the personal becomes political as we confront the ideologies that underlie racism and repression. The very design and utilization of public spaces can either perpetuate racial inequalities or challenge them.

By creating inclusive and accessible public spaces, we send a powerful message that all individuals, regardless of their ethnicity or race, have a right to exist, interact, and thrive in our communities. When public spaces are designed to accommodate a variety of cultural expressions, they contribute to dismantling systemic prejudices and fostering an environment of acceptance and equality.

“The Big Welcome,” an adaptation of words by Kate Morales, epitomizes the essence of public spaces in welcoming individuals of all backgrounds. It acknowledges their culture, ethnicity, religion, and gender, emphasizing that everyone is welcome, and their unique identities are celebrated.

Amin Maalouf’s idea of heritage highlights the role of culture in constructing a sense of belonging. People carry their heritage with them, whether in the form of names, languages, rituals, or memories. These portable emblems of the past lend continuity to new homes and serve as a connection to one’s roots.

Identity, deeply rooted in cultural memory, is maintained through collective self-images, rites, monuments, and institutional communication. Maurice Halbwachs’ concept of fixed points and figures of memory underlines the significance of cultural objectivation in preserving and stabilizing cultural memory.

In a rapidly changing world, our identities and the spaces we inhabit must reflect the richness of human diversity. Public spaces stand as the physical embodiment of our commitment to antiracism, where all individuals can embrace their identity and find their place in a world that values and celebrates the full spectrum of human experiences. As Maya Angelou wisely noted, “If we try and understand each other, we may even become friends.” It is this understanding and acceptance, fostered by public spaces, that will lead us toward a more harmonious and inclusive future.

 

* References

• Angelou, Maya. “Wouldn’t Take Nothing for My Journey Now.” Bantam, 1993

• Jacobs, Jane. “The Death and Life of Great American Cities.” Vintage, 1992.

• Davis, Angela Y. “Freedom is a Constant Struggle.” Haymarket Books, 2016.

• Maalouf, Amin. “In the Name of Identity: Violence and the Need to Belong.” Penguin, 2001.

• Morales, Kate. “The Big Welcome,” adapted from Mycelium School (2013-2016), in “Slow Spatial Reader: Chronicles of Radical Affection,” edited by Carolyn F. Strauss, Valiz, 2021.

• Lowenthal, David. “The Past is a Foreign Country.” Cambridge University Press, 1985.

• Halbwachs, Maurice. “On Collective Memory.” University of Chicago Press, 1992.

• Wilhelm Reich, “Listen, Little Man!”, The Noonday Press, 1948

Photo: Konstantina Chrysostomou, 2016

Currently, in the city of Barcelona, there are a total of 180,000 dogs registered with microchips, which is more than the population of children under 12 years old. This means that 25% of the city’s population lives with a dog. Incredible, isn’t it?

Studies show that young adults under 40 years old, the Millennials, have recently surpassed Boomers in dog adoption. In the United States, it is estimated that more than half of Millennials live with a dog. The rate of cohabitation with companion animals is even higher among people with university education and stable incomes, the same people who are more likely to delay marriage, having children, and homeownership beyond the established timelines of previous generations. But it’s not just that. Dogs can be much more: a way to root oneself in a new place, a roommate for people living alone, and they can play an important role in helping people’s mental health.

Taking care of a dog is one of those life-changing experiences. Or at least, it makes you see and live situations that you would have never experienced otherwise. Personally, it has increased my awareness of the micro-landscape of my neighborhood and how dogs interact with public spaces, and how I – as a dog companion – interact with public spaces.

A typical day with my dog would be:

• 8:25 Getting Rock ready for a walk.
• 8:28 Having a conversation with neighbors in the elevator about how excited Rock is to go out.
• 8:30 We’re already out walking with Rock, sniffing all the trees along our route (26 trees, 1 water fountain, 7 trash cans).
• 8:50 Buying bread from the bakery. Chatting with other dog owners in the neighborhood.
• 8:55 On our way back home, stopping so that the kids waiting to enter school can greet Rock.
• 9:00 Entering the house.
• 18:55 Getting Rock ready for another walk.
• 19:00 Walking with Rock in Montjuïc and chatting with other dog owners (93 trees, 4 water fountains, 41 trash cans, 1 shared-use area, 1 water space).
• 20:00 Returning home. Talking to neighbors returning from work who greet Rock.

The interaction and connection with my neighbors and the environment where I live are understood differently. It’s no longer just about having a beautiful and pleasant landscape with seating areas, but also about having waste bins, rubbish cans, and water fountains. And since I walk in the evening, it’s important for the space to be well-lit and for me to feel safe. It’s another way of perceiving the urban space and the role of a dog in this ecosystem.

Let me quickly explain the four significant things my dog has taught me about my neighborhood and its people:

 

The dog as a triangulator

Although the topic of dogs can be quite contentious among people who feel comfortable with them and those who don’t, I increasingly see dogs as great triangulators in public spaces.

But first, what does triangulation mean? 

Triangulation can be defined as “the characteristic of a public space that can bring together strangers. Usually, it is an external stimulus of some kind.”

A bus stop can be an element of triangulation. A person playing music on the street can be, too. It could be any element that makes two unknown people pause for a second and talk. That being said, a dog is a great triangulator.

While walking my dog, I have met and interacted with more neighbors in my neighborhood than in the past five years I have lived there. The dog makes people lower their guard, slows down their pace, and encourages greetings, conversations, and smiles. The last time I experienced this kind of “unforced” interaction, naturally, was when I bought a bouquet of flowers. Just as the bouquet of flowers made my neighbors talk to me about the flowers, smile, or greet me, the same thing is happening now with my dog.

 

Dog recreation areas as spaces for socialization

When you walk a dog, you automatically become part of an informal club of “people who care for a dog.” If you don’t have a dog, it’s not as easy to enter this group since the conversation typically revolves around your dog, other dogs, and the weather.

Dog recreation areas, then, are the spaces where these strangers meet and talk. Dog caregivers need these spaces—a safe environment where their dogs can exercise regularly and safely because dogs enjoy walking, running, and socializing with other dogs. It is a vital part of a dog’s life when living in an apartment in Barcelona.

What many associations working to improve the quality of life for dogs, their caregivers, and other citizens, especially in urban environments, are requesting is a reconsideration of the model for dog recreation areas. They aim to move towards a less segregated model, taking into account that dog-owning families may also have children who want to play at the same time. That’s why it is necessary to move towards a model that accommodates different groups in shared-use spaces that adapt to the daily needs of each family.

Moreover, not all dogs feel comfortable in these areas. Speaking with a dog trainer, she mentioned that dog recreation areas are suitable for dogs up to 4-5 years old and typically attract a large number of dogs. Older dogs can feel anxious in these environments, much like how we would feel if we were sent to relax inside a ball pit in a children’s playground. So where do these dogs that don’t enjoy dog recreation areas go?

It’s important to explore alternative options that cater to the diverse needs of dogs, including quieter spaces or alternative socialization opportunities, to ensure the well-being of all dogs in urban settings.

 

Dog Routes

Each neighborhood has an invisible and informal network of dog routes designed for walking dogs, which helps people get out of the house and engage in daily exercise, promoting their mental and physical health. These routes are typically circular, within a 20-minute distance from home, and are chosen for their specific characteristics. A good dog route is pleasant and includes a water fountain, many rubbish bins, permeable spaces and/or green areas, good lighting at night, wide side walks, good visibility, and “dog-friendly” local businesses. Dog routes may vary between winter and summer, as people seek the sun during summer and shade during winter. Canine routes are fully integrated into the 15-minute city model, adding the layer of carrying out daily tasks accompanied by a dog.

The 15-minute city model aims to create more liveable, sustainable, and resilient cities, ensuring that people have access to essential services and amenities within a 15-minute walk or bike ride from their homes. Dogs can play a vital role in supporting this model, as they encourage people to walk more and spend more time outdoors, promoting a healthier and more active lifestyle.

People who walk their dogs often take their animals out multiple times a day, providing them with the opportunity to explore their local neighborhoods, interact with other people and dogs, and discover new parks and green spaces. As a result, dogs can help people discover and connect with their communities, fostering a sense of belonging and improving social cohesion. Furthermore, dogs can help increase the visibility and use of public spaces within the 15-minute city model, such as dog-friendly parks and cafés. 

Dogs can also be a tool to promote sustainable transportation, such as walking and cycling, which can help reduce traffic congestion, air pollution, and carbon emissions. This can contribute to a more sustainable and resilient city that is better equipped to address the challenges of climate change.

Overall, dogs can play a crucial role in supporting the 15-minute city model by fostering active lifestyles, reinforcing social connections, increasing the use of public spaces, and promoting sustainable transportation through dog routes.

But what should these spaces be like to ensure quality and improve coexistence?

 

Design, Maintenance, and Community Involvement

Dog routes, dog parks, and shared-use areas (SUA) must meet certain basic criteria.

Regarding the daily dog routes, they should be safe, accessible, with plenty of trees and permeable surfaces, and equipped with public amenities to ensure the well-being of dogs, the people who walk them, and the community as a whole. In terms of design criteria for daily routes, they should include:

• Benches and/or permeable surfaces (not rubberized)
• Accessible water sources for dogs of all heights
• Rubbish bins and bag dispensers
• Good nighttime lighting
• Wide side walks for walking the dog and stopping to socialize
• Minimal car traffic speed
• Good visibility
• Ground-floor facades with activity and “dog-friendly” businesses such as bakeries, fruit shops, etc.

Avance arrossegant els peus, que carreguen el dia sencer, però es desenganxen de la vorera i em vaig elevant pel carrer mig buit. Per damunt de paperots i burilles, dels cotxes aparcats en filera. Per damunt de l’aparador de la botiga de marcs i motllures a punt de tancar, del dring dels gots al Sabadelle, acabat d’obrir, i del senyal lluminós de l’hostal Mar de Plata, que mai no s’apaga.

Tres, quatre, cinc metres. Seguisc surant amunt entre edificis. Ja estic a l’alçada de les finestres del segon pis. Passe tan a prop que podria parlar amb els habitants de l’immoble. Escoltar el telenotícies amb l’home de la samarreta de tirants estovat al sofà. Tastar la sopa que ja fa estona que bombolleja, al costat de la taula de cuina del pis d’estudiants. Acariciar les tovalloles esponjoses que Pepa despenja eixutes dels cordills de la galeria.

Set, vuit,  nou metres. Surar em fa sentir lliure. Desapareixen les línies dels adoquins, es desdibuixen les copes dels arbres i les tasques del calendari. Una munió de llumetes desenfocades sembren el paisatge urbà, com si Seurat estigués pintant la poqueta nit del segle XXI: les tireres de fanals groguencs que serpentegen els carrers, els ulls blancs dels cotxes que vénen, i els rojos dels que van, la coreografia en bucle dels cicles semafòrics.

Per mi, és el camí màgic a casa. No totes pensen que ho és de màgic, potser no són conscients del privilegi de travessar la ciutat en vol rasant. Però cap de les persones que suren al meu voltant té pressa. Això és. Això tenim en comú. N’hi ha que passegen de la mà, i d’altres que sostenen una corretja. N’hi ha que pausen el cap amb l’horitzó i n’hi ha que suen l’estrés de la feina a tota virolla. Gossos que s’empaiten. Autofotos temeràries. La xica de les vuit. Però cap tenim pressa.

És un camí flotant que envolta el barri a deu metres d’alçada. Com les anelles de fum de cigarreta que es fan exhalant. O els cinturons d’asteroides de Saturn. Comparable al High Line de Nova York, però sense gentrificar. Sense restriccions horàries ni pol·lució. Amb el pòsit de segles d’històries a sobre. No és cap jardí, però sobrevola el bosc sagrat, i s’hi pot passejar sense detindre’s, perquè al ser un rogle no té principi ni final. 

La xica de les vuit s’abriga sempre amb colls infinits teixits a crochet, i amb barrets de llana. Amb borla. Els hi fa sa mare. Avui els duu blancs, però de colls i barrets en té de molts colors. I sempre combinen, com si eixiren d’una mateixa paleta de tardor, de terra mullada i fulles caigudes. Sempre ens creuem a aquestes hores, però la foscor només ens deixa descobrir-nos quan som molt a prop, amb el temps just de mirar-se de reüll i esbossar un somriure. Perquè per saber si algú et mira als ulls tu l’has de mirar alhora també. O per saber si es gira a veure com t’allunyes. 

Jo no ho sé si es gira quan m’allunye, però continue endavant, pel camí màgic a casa, perquè sé que en pocs minuts ens tornarem a creuar sobrevolant el barri. Fins que de tants instants en fem una estona.

* Referències 

Text inspirat en la vida quotidiana de la muralla de Lugo com a espai públic singular i extraordinari.

• La muralla de Lugo
• La desmaterialització de la muralla
• El bar Sabadelle
• O bosque sagrado
• The High Line, New York
• Georges Seurat
• Coll infinit a crochet
• Publicació original

Image: Dibuix de Juan Creus Andrade per a la publicació “Recinto. Lugo: historia y ciudad”, 2014.

Public space is not neutral. 

Public space is not neutral. 

Public space is not neutral. 

Beirut, Mostar, Nicosia, Jerusalem, Belfast

In each city of these, urban managers under-estimated growing interethnic tensions  until it was so late that violence spread and resulted in physical segregation. Though the walls, fences, and no man’s lands that resulted were generally designed to be temporary, they have considerable staying powers, forcing divided residents to grapple with life “under siege”, confronting their terrors at home without the means of retreat or escape. Even after politicians have secured a peace, the citizens struggle with losses and missed opportunities that are beyond compensation. Along the path to urban partition, a social contract between municipal government and residents is broken. The costs of renegotiations are high. 

Partitioned cities act as a warning beacon for all cities where intercommunal rivalry threatens normal urban functioning and security. Every city contains ethnic fault-lines or boundaries that give shape to “good” and “bad” neighbourhoods and lend local meaning to “the other side of the tracks”. 

These five cities are linked by similar episodes of development in similar sequences and patterns. The events that pushed Belfast, Beirut, Jerusalem, Mostar and Nicosia up to beyond the threshold of ethnic apartheid have much in common. Not all phases are found in each city, but they can be considerable reliable indicators of a propensity towards physical segregation for ethnically diverse societies under stress while undergoing a major social transition:

1. Politicizing ethnicity – merging of political and ethnic identity on a mass scale
2. Clustering – if pressures multiply, the members of a threatened urban community may seek out smaller, more ethnically homogenous clusters for protection. 
3. Political up-scaling – Divided cities function in part as emblems of larger political struggles in which individual enclave residents are enlisted to fight battles not directly serving their personal interests. 
4. Boundary etching – once threatened ethnic communities have retreated into homogenous clusters, and the urban terrain has been converted into political territory, it remains for the battle lines to be formally drawn. 
5. Concretizing – The transformation of these inscribed boundaries, from permeable into impermeable thresholds separating neighbouring reside groups, is a process that relies on purposeful design and execution. Generally, they intended to be temporary in anticipation of diplomatic interventions, however they remained in place for decades. 
6. Consolidating – Once ethnic boundaries have been etched and concretizing in the urban environment, the political climate determines whether municipal authorities will augment or counteract the process of division. 
7. Unifying but not integrating – Due to burdensome inefficiencies of physical segregation in an environment engineered for cooperation, urban partitions are rarely sustainable. Though physical barriers are easily demolished, the social and physical scars that remain are slow to fade. The psychological residue from long periods of violence and intimidation generally prevents residents who live through the period of partition from occupying formerly forbidden areas. 

The typical divided city remains divided as long as  the insecurities that led to intergroup violence remain. Though physical partitions generate new problems and intensify interethnic rivalries in their own right, their removal is necessary but not sufficient condition for the creation of more favourable and equitable conditions in the urban framework.

.

* References 

• J. Calame, E. Charlesworth, (2009) Divided cities, University of Pennsylvania Press

• A. Oz, (1994) Israel, Palestine and Peace: Essays on a Paradoxical Situation

• CCCB (2005) Breaking the wall: the social responsability of Palestinian and Israeli Academics and Intellectuals at Times of Violent conflict: An introspective Search

• K. Chrysostomou (2013) Διακοινοτικές σχέσεις σε διαιρεμένες πόλεις: Η περίπτωση της Λευκωσίας (Relacions intercomunitàries en ciutats dividides: el cas de Nicòsia)
  
  
• K. Chrysostomou (2016), Negotiating Cultural Identities in Post Conflict Spaces: The memorial landscapes of Nicosia
  
  
• Photos: Konstantina Chrysostomou, No man’s land in Cyprus